Global economic expansion and the rapid growth of the aviation industry, which exemplify the escalation of human activities, have led to an increase in the introduction of alien species (Hulme 2009; Spear et al. 2013). Some of the introduced alien species exhibit high adaptability to novel environments, perpetuating their life cycles and, in some instances, gaining a competitive edge over native species (Diez et al. 2012; LaForgia et al. 2020; Leishman et al. 2007). When the risks to ecosystems or human well-being are deemed significant, an alien species is designated and regulated as an ecosystem disturbance species (Son et al. 2021). Invasive alien species (IAS) contribute to biodiversity reduction and ecosystem simplification and pose direct or indirect threats to endangered species (Pyšek et al. 2020; Robichaud and Rooney 2022; Roy et al. 2023). The decline in species diversity not only disrupts the balance and health of ecosystems, but also diminishes the quality of diverse ecosystem services, including disease prevention, safety, and food supply (Weidlich et al. 2020). According to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services report, the estimated global cost of damages caused by IAS in 2019 was approximately $423 billion, with the effects of IAS anticipated to exacerbate due to climate change (Roy et al. 2023).

Previous studies have consistently demonstrated that IAS have a deleterious effect on ecosystems (Gaertner et al. 2009; Hejda et al. 2009; Mack et al. 2000). Rockström et al. (2009) proposed the planetary boundaries framework, which shows that anthropogenic activities have already exceeded three of the nine boundaries based on the natural variability of the Holocene climate, making the decline in biodiversity the most pressing issue that requires resolution. In December 2022, the Kunming–Montreal Biodiversity Agreement convened, discussing the negative effects and management of IAS. The Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) outlines 23 action targets by 2023 and places a strong emphasis on transformative action in all social and economic sectors to realize the vision of “living in harmony with nature” by 2050. Notably, “Target 6” of the GBF embodies the global objective to combat IAS, wherein “Action Goal 6” addresses the impacts of IAS on biodiversity and ecosystem services through the identification and management of pathways for alien species introduction, prevention of the establishment of priority IAS, reduction of the introduction and establishment rates of other known or potential IAS by at least 50% by 2030, and eradication or control of IAS, especially in priority sites, such as islands (CBD 2023). Therefore, in instances of biodiversity decline attributed to climate change, habitat destruction, environmental pollution, and the proliferation of invasive species, it becomes imperative to conduct thorough examinations and research elucidating the characteristics and repercussions of invasive species (Kettenring and Adams 2011). Although the risks of IAS to ecosystems are widely known, quantitative information regarding the ecological and environmental effects of individual IAS is lacking (Barney et al. 2013).

Coreopsis lanceolata (Asteraceae), native to North America, was introduced to Korea for ornamental purposes sometime before 1963 (KIAS 2024). Although it is not an ecosystem disturbance species in South Korea, the spread level of C. lanceolata is level 3 (concerned spread), which means that its distribution area has spread to 50%–74% of South Korea (Jung et al. 2017). Presently, C. lanceolata is planted on road slopes or in waterside parks in South Korea (Song et al. 2018). In Australia, C. lanceolata poses a threat to the growth of native plant species (Batianoff and Halford 2002). Furthermore, Japan lists C. lanceolata among the top 100 noxious invasive plants, prohibits its planting, and enforces physical control methods such as pulling or cutting (Arifin and Okamoto 2023; Ministry of the Environment, Japan 2024). However, there is limited research on the invasiveness of C. lanceolata, both domestically and globally (Saito and Okubo 2013). In the Republic of Korea 2018 Alien Species Survey, the National Institute of Ecology conducted a detailed investigation of C. lanceolata. However, the survey faced challenges due to insufficient information on C. lanceolata’s habitat characteristics and impacts on plant ecosystems nationwide. The survey highlighted the need to collect more data on C. lanceolata’s characteristics to develop future management plans for controlling its spread (Song et al. 2018).

Therefore, we aimed to identify research trends on C. lanceolata and suggest directions for future research. Our results can serve as the foundation for the development of effective control measures and the management of invasive alien flora.

Data collection and analysis of previous research

We collected the data for this review by conducting a keyword search across four scientific databases: Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed. The search was based on papers and books published between 1980 and 2023 and included the keyword “Coreopsis lanceolata,” which is the scientific name of the species. The findings of this study were based on research outcomes across multiple disciplines, including studies on chemical compounds, plant diseases, phylogenetic classification, biology, and ecology (Table 1 and S1). Data from the search were excluded if the literature was not written in English, the literature only contained an abstract rather than a full document, the topic of the paper was unclear, or studies were not conducted on C. lanceolata. Finally, we collected only data directly related to C. lanceolata from four scientific databases, excluded duplicate literature, and found a total of 49 related studies. We performed the text mining analysis and word cloud generation using the R statistical software package v4.4.1. The packages used for the analysis included ‘tm’ and ‘wordcloud’. Only the abstracts of the articles were extracted for the analysis, and words that did not have a special meaning (“plant,” “results,” “my,” “me,” etc.) were removed using the functions “removeWords” and “stopwords.” After organizing the 49 studies on C. lanceolata, the majority of papers were in the field of efficacy, such as the extraction of antioxidants or organic compounds (Table 1). In the field of ecology, seed germination studies were most common, followed by pollinator and plant disease research. There were only three papers that presented quantitative evidence on the invasion characteristics of C. lanceolata (Saito and Okubo 2012, 2013; Zeng et al. 2021). We subjected the 49 selected papers to text mining analysis and visualized the results as word clouds. The text mining analysis revealed that seed research (seeds, germination, storage, etc.) accounted for the most frequent terms. Terms related to morphological features and flowering (flowers, leaves, nectar, bees, etc.) and efficacy studies (compounds, isolated, cells, activity, etc.) also occurred in high frequency. We also identified a few terms related to invasion ecology, including nonnative, vegetation, and natural (Fig. 1).

Table 1 . Classification of studies on Coreopsis lanceolata.

Classification	References	Number of studies
Chemical compounds and efficacy	Zheng et al. 2021 Kim et al. 2019a Pardede et al. 2016	16
Plant diseases	Guarnaccia et al. 2021 Lee 2012 Babaie et al. 2007	9
Seeds	Banovetz and Scheiner 1994b Carpenter and Ostmark 1992 Samfield et al. 1990	6
Flowering and pollinators	Kalaman et al. 2022b Fiedler and Landis 2007 Grundel et al. 2000	5
Phylogenetic classification	Cosner and Crawford 1990 Crawford et al. 1990	4
Growth characteristics	Batianoff and Halford 2002 Benson and McDougall 1994 Johnson and Whitwell 1997	3
Distribution and Establishment	Johnston et al. 2015 Frances et al. 2010 Sabre et al. 1997	3
Invasiveness	Zeng et al. 2021 Saito and Okubo 2012, 2013	3

Research on C. lanceolata was divided into eight categories. See the Table S1 for a complete list of references for each topic.

Figure 1. Word cloud of research papers related to Coreopsis lanceolata. A word cloud was generated and visualized after performing text mining on the abstracts of 49 papers focused on C. lanceolata.

Taxonomy

The Coreopsis genus, native to North America, includes about 45 species in North America and is divided into 11 sections (Cosner and Crawford 1990; Crawford et al. 1990). The section that includes C. lanceolata is the largest section of the Coreopsis genus in North America and is paraphyletic (Jansen et al. 1987; Kim et al. 1999). Jansen et al (1987) classified nine Coreopsis species in this section (C. auriculata, C. basalis, C. grandiflora, C. intermedia, C. lanceolata, C. nuecensis, C. nuecensoides, C. pubescens, and C. wrightii), with a consistency index of 0.90 or higher, excluding autapomorphies, as a result of a chloroplast DNA restriction site study (Crawford et al. 1990; Kim et al. 1999). In other terms, the Coreopsis genus exhibits a high degree of genetic identity among its species.

Biological and ecological characteristics

Seeds

The seeds of C. lanceolata, primarily dispersed in mid to late summer, have a length of 2.3–3 mm and a weight of 0.1–3.2 mg, exhibiting significant variability compared to the seeds of other plants (Banovetz and Scheiner 1994a, b; Jung et al. 2017). Most of the biological research on C. lanceolata has evaluated the seeds’ traits and germination rates. The larger the seed, the higher the survival rate when buried in the soil. However, Banovetz and Scheiner (1994a) found that the germination rate of larger seeds is lower. The seed bank of C. lanceolata can persist for up to 13 years, further demonstrating that the larger the seed, the longer the lifespan (Arifin and Okamoto 2023; Batianoff and Halford 2002).

Different studies have shown that seed germination rates differ depending on temperature conditions. Dhatt and Kumar (2010) conducted the most recent research on germination rates and found that cold storage (0°C–4°C) provides the best conditions for germination. In a different study, germination rates were enhanced by consistent 12-hour light/dark cycles and temperatures ranging from 5°C to 15°C (Banovetz and Scheiner 1994b; Carpenter and Ostmark 1992). In other words, C. lanceolata seeds are cold-resistant, and the higher the temperature and relative humidity when storing the seeds, the longer the germination period (Carpenter and Ostmark 1992). Contrary to the earlier findings, a different study revealed that seeds kept at 5°C for an extended period of time caused secondary dormancy, which prevents germination even in warm temperatures and during variations in the light/dark cycle (Banovetz and Scheiner 1994b). Coreopsis lanceolata is known to have high cold resistance as well as drought resistance and thus, its total germination rate did not decrease even when seeds with a moisture content of 13% were dried to 5.2% (Carpenter and Ostmark 1992). In addition, if seeds are vacuum-stored for two months before sowing, the germination speed is much faster and the germination rate is higher (Samfield et al. 1990). Studies have found that C. lanceolata seeds have a high survival rate and can exist in a dormant or active state until the next growth period, despite variations in temperature and relative humidity conditions for germination rates (Banovetz and Scheiner 1994b; Carpenter and Ostmark 1992; Dhatt and Kumar 2010).

Growth characteristics

Coreopsis lanceolata is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows to about 20–100 cm tall and clusters or clumps through vigorous rhizome growth (Fig. 2) (Batianoff and Halford 2002; Benson and McDougall 1994). The leaves grow from the plant’s base and stem and have short hairs (Batianoff and Halford 2002; Benson and McDougall 1994). The leaf, resembling a flat spatula with long petioles capable of splitting, measures 5–25 cm in length and 1–2 cm in width, featuring clustered root leaves and opposed stem leaves (Batianoff and Halford 2002). The flowers are yellow and consist of a disk flower and eight ray florets (Batianoff and Halford 2002; Benson and McDougall 1994). The diameter of the flower is 4–6 cm, the bracts are lanceolate and about 1 cm long, and the stem passes through the peduncle (Batianoff and Halford 2002; KPNI 2024). The fruit is a black achene, 2–3 mm long, with membranous wings of 0.5–0.8 mm and two teeth (Batianoff and Halford 2002). Several benefits, including aesthetics, high survival after cutting, and simple storage, make C. lanceolata a popular field-grown wildflower in horticulture and landscaping (Johnson and Whitwell 1997).

Figure 2. Pictures of Coreopsis lanceolata. (A) Individual, (B) spatula-shaped leaves, (C) roots, (D) flower: disk and ray florets, and (E) seeds.

Flowering and pollinators

Despite its low nectar volume per flower, C. lanceolata is one of the most attractive species to a wide range of pollinators (Fiedler and Landis 2007; Kalaman et al. 2022a). In the temperate climate of the Northern Hemisphere, C. lanceolata is known to bloom in spring (in April), which lasts for about 7 months until fall (in November) (Zeng et al. 2021). The floral scent emitted by C. lanceolata flowers contains substances with a benzene structure, including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and benzenoids (Arifin and Okamoto 2023). Because C. lanceolata is self-incompatible, a pollinator is essential for its generational reproduction, and it is passed down through pollination (Arifin and Okamoto 2023). In the United States, C. lanceolata attracts more pollinators than any other species during the May–August period, and it is most popular with small-to medium-sized bees, such as sweat and leafcutter bees (Fiedler and Landis 2007; Kalaman et al. 2022b). In the eastern US, the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis), which prefers yellow or white flowers, is also a frequent visitor (Grundel et al. 2000). In Japan, it attracts diverse floral visitors from 20 families and 60 species, with halictid bees being the most important pollinators of C. lanceolata in terms of visit frequency and pollen transport (Arifin and Okamoto 2023). In China, there are also reports of C. lanceolata attracting more than 11 times as many insect visitors as C. tinctoria (Zeng et al. 2021).

Distribution

Native to the US, C. lanceolata primarily inhabits dry sand prairies and sand dunes from the north shore of Lake Superior to Florida, Texas, and New Mexico (Banovetz and Scheiner 1994b). On the plant hardiness zone map from the USDA (USDA 2024), it is distributed in zones 3–8, which means that it is present throughout the US (Kalaman et al. 2022b). In Australia, it occurs at altitudes of 0–1,000 m, with annual rainfall exceeding 700 mm, and it frequently appears along roadsides and railways and in disturbed areas (Benson and McDougall 1994). They are generally highly adapted to sandy soils with an intermittent moisture supply and environments without shade (Benson and McDougall 1994). In addition to the mentioned countries, C. lanceolata is now widely distributed globally in temperate to subtropical climates (Fig. 3) (Batianoff and Halford 2002; GBIF Secretariat 2024).

Figure 3. Distribution map of Coreopsis lanceolata. The map indicates the distribution of C. lanceolata (black dots) and its native range in the United States (yellow). Location records sourced from GBIF Secretariat (2024).

Invasiveness

Serious ecological problems caused by C. lanceolata have been reported in several countries around the world, including Australia and Japan (Arifin and Okamoto 2023). Australia first recorded the naturalization of C. lanceolata in 1994, and Queensland has used it as a landscape plant (Batianoff and Halford 2002). However, the invasion of C. lanceolata has reduced crop productivity in pastures and croplands, prompting its listing as a potentially invasive plant in southeastern Queensland and southern Australia (Batianoff and Halford 2002). Introduced as an ornamental plant for landscaping in Japan in 1880, it has since spread across the mainland and neighboring islands, invading waterfront areas (Arifin and Okamoto 2023; Miyawaki and Washitani 2004). It was also introduced to China as a horticultural plant in Lushan, Jiangxi Province, in 1936, but after its introduction, it has spread throughout China (Zeng et al. 2021). Despite the expansion of C. lanceolata in South Korea, the species remains undesignated as ecologically threatening, and its strong survival, fertility, and soil adaptability make it easy to manage (Fig. 4) (Song et al. 2018). Coreopsis lanceolata in northern Florida, US, one of its native habitats, has the largest floral display in July and August in northern Florida (Kalaman et al. 2022a). In Georgia, another native habitat in the US, C. lanceolata has the highest coverage rate for 12 months after seeding (Johnston et al. 2015). In other words, C. lanceolata exhibits a high ground surface cover and the ability to expand into both native areas such as Florida and Georgia, as well as invaded areas such as Australia, Japan, China, and South Korea (Arifin and Okamoto 2023; Batianoff and Halford 2002; Johnston et al. 2015; Kalaman et al. 2022a; Moshobane et al. 2022).

Figure 4. Coreopsis lanceolata is dominant in plant communities in various habitats. (A) Open area, (B) embankment slope, (C) floodplain, and (D) roadside.

One of the factors that increases the negative impact of C. lanceolata on the ecosystem is its rapid spread through rhizomes. Most perennial herbaceous species can reproduce not only by seeds but also by underground vegetative organs, making them highly invasive (Gazoulis et al. 2022). Coreopsis lanceolata reproduces not only by seeds but also by producing multiple stems from the main root, and it has a long life cycle as a perennial plant (Zeng et al. 2021). Its dense rhizomes create large clumps that displace native species, reducing biodiversity (Batianoff and Halford 2002). Similarly, the perennial herbaceous Solidago altissima, an ecosystem disturbance species in South Korea, threatens native species by forming numerous ramets through its rhizomes (Chmura et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2009). Due to its rapid spread, C. lanceolata competes strongly with native species and poses a problem by homogenizing vegetation structure (Batianoff and Halford 2002). In Japan, C. lanceolata dominates plant communities due to its early growth and succeeds in the invaded areas by impeding light availability to other native riparian plant species (Saito and Okubo 2013). This significantly affects both riversides and disturbed areas such as roadsides, wastelands, and granite hills (Batianoff and Halford 2002). In addition, its long flowering period means it has a high pollination success rate and attracts various pollinators, increasing seed production (Arifin and Okamoto 2023; Zeng et al. 2021). A single C. lanceolata plant produces approximately 12,000 seeds per bloom season (Arifin and Okamoto 2023). Although these characteristics facilitate the successful invasion of this species, there is scarce quantitative evidence regarding its direct effects on native species, with the exception of research on its biological characteristics (Batianoff and Halford 2002; Zeng et al. 2021). Despite the severity of the extensive spreading ability of C. lanceolata, no management strategies other than physical removal are known (Batianoff and Halford 2002; Saito and Okubo 2012).

Plant diseases

Using C. lanceolata as a host, all taxa responsible for diseases are fungi, with 10 genera identified, including Alternaria tenuissima. These pathogens cause symptoms ranging from mild plant yellowing to plant death (Babaie et al. 2007). Most studies have observed diseases targeting C. lanceolata leaves, including leaf blight, powdery mildew, downy mildew, and leaf spot (Table 2) (Choi et al. 2009; Guarnaccia et al. 2021; Li and Liu 2019; Zhu et al. 2023). Phytopythium oedochilum causes root rot in C. lanceolata (Garibaldi et al. 2022), and fungi of the genus Phytoplasma cause witches’ brooms, which kill growing points and induce copious production of side shoots (Babaie et al. 2007).

Table 2 . Fungi that cause diseases in Coreopsis lanceolata.

Genus	Scientific name	Symptom	Target	Reference
Alternaria	Alternaria tenuissima	Leaf spot	Leaf	Li and Liu 2019
Colletotrichum	Colletotrichum spp.	Leaf lesion, leaf blight	Leaf	Guarnaccia et al. 2021
	Colletotrichum fuscum	Leaf blight	Leaf	Garibaldi et al. 2020
Erysiphe	Erysiphe arcuate	Powdery mildew	Leaf	Lee 2012
Golovinomyces	Golovinomyces spadiceus	Full moon	Leaf	Dugan 2013
Phytoplasma	Phytoplasma spp.	Witches’ broom, dwarfing, phyllody	Leaf, flower	Babaie et al. 2007
Phytopythium	Phytopythium oedochilum	Root rot	Root	Garibaldi et al. 2022
Plasmopara	Plasmopara halstedii	Downy mildew	Leaf	Choi et al. 2009
Podosphaera	Podosphaera fusca	Powdery mildew	Leaf	Garibaldi et al. 2007 Zhu et al. 2023
Pseudomonas	Pseudomonas cichorii	Leaf spot	Leaf	Garibaldi et al. 2009

To date, 10 genera have been identified, and most of them show symptoms in leaf tissue.

Chemical compounds

Research on C. lanceolata has primarily focused on efficacy, a trend that continues to this day. Numerous studies have revealed the properties and effects of compounds extracted from C. lanceolata (Table 3). Particularly, researchers isolated an extract from flowers that exhibits antioxidant effects, primarily consisting of phenolic compounds (Kim et al. 2019a, b; Matsuo et al. 2023; Okada et al. 2014). Flavonoid compounds, including aurone, chalcone, flavanone, and flavonol, are known to act as representative antioxidants in nature (Okada et al. 2014; Pardede et al. 2016; Shang et al. 2013). Coreopsis lanceolata extracts have demonstrated various types of efficacies, including antioxidant properties (Kim et al. 2021a, b; Okada et al. 2014; Shang et al. 2013), anti-cancer properties (Pardede et al. 2016; Kim et al. 2019a, b), disease treatment (Kim et al. 2020b; Kim et al. 2021a, b), anti-inflammatory properties (Lee et al. 2021), and insecticidal effects (Kimura et al. 2008; Pardede et al. 2018).

Table 3 . Effects of Coreopsis lanceolata extracts.

Effect	Extracted compound structures	Explanation	References
Antioxidant	7,3′,4′-Trihydroxy-8-methoxyflavanone	- Antioxidant effect greater than α-tocopherol - Antioxidant effect greater than ascorbic acid	Okada et al. 2014
	6,3′,4′-Trihydroxy-7-methoxyaurone
	3,2′-Dihydroxy-4,3′-dimethoxychalcone-4′-glucoside	- Protect against oxidative stress induced by tert-butylhydroperoxide (especially HepG2 cell protection)	Shang et al. 2013
	4′-O-(2′′′-O-caffeoyl)2′,3′,3,4-tetrahydroxychalcone
	2′,4′,3-Trihydroxy-3′,4-dimethoxychalcone
	3,4,2′,4′-Tetrahydroxy-3′-methoxychal-cone 4'-glucoside	- The SC50 (scavenging concentration 50%) value is 2.6 mg/mL - The superoxide dismutase activity is 46.2%	Tanimoto et al. 2009
	Chalcone, flavanone, flavonol, and aurone containing a 3,4-dihydroxy group	- High antioxidant capacity	Nakabo et al. 2018
	Flower (CLF) extracts	- Improve oxidative stress induced by H2O2 - Induction of the expression of antioxidant enzymes in PC12 cells	Kim et al. 2021a
	Flower (CLF) extracts	- Radical scavenging and recovery against active oxygen	Kim et al. 2021b
	Lanceolein A−G, etc.	- Some flavanones protect against oxidative stress in PC-12 neurons, Caco-2 colonic epithelial cells, and RAW 264.7 macrophage cells	Kim et al. 2019a
	Coreolanceolins A–E, etc.	- All flavanones inhibit NO production in RAW 264.7 cells - Reduced iNOS and COX-2 expression	Kim et al. 2020b
Anti-cancer	4-Methoxylanceoletin	- Inhibits cell proliferation - Induces apoptosis of human leukemia HL-60 cells	Pardede et al. 2016
	Lanceoleins A–G and hydroxychalcones	- Some compounds induce cytotoxicity and apoptosis in human colon cancer cells - Some compounds have inhibitory effects on NO production in colon cancer RAW264.7 macrophages.	Kim et al. 2019b
	Lanceolein A−G, etc.	- Some chalcones inhibit the growth of colon cancer cells by inducing cytotoxicity and apoptosis	Kim et al. 2019a
Insecticide	1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne	- Growth inhibitory effects and insecticidal effects on Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and Caenorhabditis elegans	Kimura et al. 2008
	5-Phenyl-2-(1-propynyl)-thiophene
	2-(3-acetoxy-1-propynyl)-5-phenylthiophene
	5-Phenyl-2-(1-propynyl)-thiophene	- Strong resistance effect against Coptotermes curvignathus	Pardede et al. 2018
	1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-tryne
Disease treatment	Lanceoletin	- Strongly inhibit DPP-IV, which is associated with type II diabetes	Kim et al. 2020a
	3,2′-Dihydroxy-4-3′-dimethoxychalcone-4′-glucoside
	4-Methoxylanceoletin
	Leptosidin
	(2R)-8-methoxybutin
	Leptosidin	- Recovery of damaged pancreatic islet by alloxan treatment in zebrafish	Kim et al. 2021a
	Leptosin
	Isoquercetin
	Astragalin
	Flower (CLF) extracts	- Neuroprotective effect against apoptosis caused by H2O2-induced oxidative stress (OS) in PC12 cells of Parkinson’s disease model mice.	Kim et al. 2021a
Anti-inflammatory	Phenylheptatriyne	- Inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) production in BV2 and RAW264.7 cells	Lee et al. 2021
	2′-Hydroxy-3,4,4′-trimethoxychalcone
	4′,7-Dimethoxyflavanone
	8-Methoxybutin
	Leptosidin
Whitening	Chalcone, flavanone, flavonol, and aurone containing a 3,4-dihydroxy group	- Whitening (level of effect in the order of chalcone, aurone, flavonol, and flavanone)	Nakabo et al. 2018

CLF: Coreopsis lanceolata flowers; DPP-IV: dipeptidyl peptidase IV.

The efficacy of substances extracted or isolated from C. lanceolata has been the focus of most research on the species. In the past, most studies have focused on basic biology, such as morphology and germination rates, while more recent studies have focused on the extracted materials for cosmetic applications (e.g., whitening and anti-aging) and pathological applications (e.g., leukemia and diabetes). Common characteristics that contribute to the successful invasion of C. lanceolata are 1) high seed quantity, 2) high seed survival rate and longevity, 3) rapid spread through rhizomes, 4) long flowering period and large variety of pollinators, and 5) high leaf coverage on the ground surface. However, despite recent concerns about the risk of C. lanceolata invasion, there are very few studies and insufficient quantitative evidence on this. Although various media and press outlets have expressed concerns about the widespread proliferation of C. lanceolata in South Korea, there has been no research on the potential risks or policy responses. Despite relatively active research on C. lanceolata in Japan, the impact of its invasion on the surrounding environment and native species remains inadequately assessed. Therefore, quantitative research on the invasion risk of C. lanceolata is considered the most urgent issue. Additionally, if research findings in the fields of efficacy and beauty are integrated with biotechnology and the natural products, C. lanceolata can be positively utilized in both removal management and human welfare aspects. In order to stop the invasion of C. lanceolata and other invasive plants that are still a problem, research on the creation of evaluation indicators that can proactively assess alien species imported into the nation is also seen as extremely vital.

Supplementary information accompanies this paper at https://doi.org/10.5141/jee.24.050.

Table S1. Previous research on Coreopsis lanceolata in eight categories.

We would like to thankthe editors and anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions on the manuscript.

IAS: Invasive alien species

GBF: Global Biodiversity Framework

Deokjoo Son contributed to the study conception and design. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Eunhee Cho and Deokjoo Son commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (RS-2023-00250000) and Project Open Innovation R&D (21-BW-002) by K-water.

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Not applicable.

Not applicable.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.